The American History some terms

Cherokee Indian Removal: act that provided funds for relocating eastern tribes west of the Mississippi. The act embodied Jackson’s preferred solution to the “Indian problem,” the mandatory expulsion of all Indians from the then-existing states. Indian resisted in numerous ways, but, in the end, most were forced to comply with the terms of the act.

Compromise of 1820: 1820, congressional compromise engineered by Henry Clay that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state and Maine to enter as a free state. The compromise also established Missouri’s southern border as the permanent line dividing slave from free states. The Missouri compromise calmed tensions in the short run but did nothing to resolve the underlying issue of the future of slavery in the United States.

Compromise of 1850: collection of laws passed in 1850 meant to resolve the dispute over the spread of slavery in the territories. Key elements of the Compromise of 1850 included the admission of California as a free state and the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Compromise of 1850 began to unravel almost immediately after its passage, as sectional tensions continued to rise.

Dred Scott: in the Dred Scott decision, the United States Supreme Court rules the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional and declares that blacks are not U.S citizens.

Emancipation Proclamation: presidential proclamation issued on January 1, 1863, declaring all slaves in Confederate-controlled territory free. The limitations of the proclamation – it exempted the loyal Border States and the Union-occupied areas of the Confederacy – caused some to ridicule the act. Nonetheless, the Emancipation Proclamation made the Civil War a war to free slaves.

Fugitive Slave Act: a law included in the compromise of 1850 to help attract southern support for the legislative package. Its strict provisions for capturing runaway slaves provoked outrage in the North and contributed to intensified antislavery sentiment in the region.

Kansas-Nebraska Act: 1854 law championed by Stephen A. Douglas that removed Indians from Nebraska Territory, divided the territory into Kansas and Nebraska, and stipulated that the issue of slavery in each of the new territories would be decided on the basis of popular sovereignty. Implementation of the measure led to bloody fighting between pro- and antislavery forces in Kansas.

Know Nothings: the Know-Nothing exploded onto the political stage in 1854 and 1855 with a series of dazzling successes. They captured state legislatures in the Northeast, West, and South and claimed dozens of seats in Congress. By 1855, an observer might reasonably have concluded that the Know-Nothing had emerged as the successor to the Whigs.

Manifest Destiny: Term coined in 1845 by John L. O’Sullivan to justify American expansion. O’Sullivan claimed that it was Americans’ “manifest destiny” to move westward, bringing with them their values and civilization. Manifest destiny framed the American conquest of the West as part of a divine plan.

Mexican-American War: American and Mexican soldiers skirmished across much of northern Mexico, but the major battles took place between the Rio Grande and Mexico City.

Wilmot Proviso: proposal put forward by Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania in August 1846 to ban slavery in territory acquired as a result of the Mexican-American war. The proviso enjoyed widespread support in the north, but many Southerners saw it as an attack on their economic and political interests.

Chapter 15: The Crucible of War, 1861–1865

1. Abraham Lincoln’s first goal when he took office as president was to

 a. declare war on the Confederate States of America.

 b. abolish slavery in the slave states that had not yet seceded.

 c. stop secession from spreading to the Upper South states.

 d. all of the above.

The answer is c. Lincoln’s inaugural address, delivered on March 4, 1861, revealed his strategy for managing the crisis the nation faced. His first concern was to avoid any act that would push the eight slave states that were still in the Union into seceding and adding to the strength of the Confederate States.

2. Jefferson Davis’s objective as president of the newly formed Confederate States of America was to

 a. establish the Confederacy as a permanent, independent republic.

 b. bring the rebel states back into the Union after negotiating certain concessions from President Lincoln.

 c. instigate a war with the Union as quickly as possible.

 d. maintain the Confederacy at just the eight Lower South states so as to avoid overextending its resources.

The answer is a. Davis’s goal was to achieve permanence for the Confederacy. To do so, he knew he had to sustain the secession fever in the Lower South states. He also sought to strengthen the Confederacy by adding more states.

3. President Lincoln decided not to abandon Fort Sumter because he

 a. did not think that the Confederacy would really attack it.

 b. wanted to force the Upper South to commit to the Union.

 c. had devised a military strategy for restoring the Union in which Fort Sumter was the linchpin.

 d. believed that abandoning it would violate his inaugural promise to defend federal property.

The answer is d. Lincoln knew that by resupplying the federal troops at Fort Sumter, he risked alienating the states of the Upper South. However, he felt that giving up the fort would show his acceptance of the Confederacy’s existence, divide northern opinion, and undermine his new Republican administration.

4. On the question of what to do about Fort Sumter, Jefferson Davis decided

 a. to take the fort before the relief expedition arrived.

 b. to execute the Union soldiers at Fort Sumter as a warning to the federal government.

 c. to fire on the Union supply ship as it entered Charleston harbor rather than attack the fort directly.

 d. to refrain from any military action against the fort.

The answer is a. After considerable debate with his cabinet, Davis ordered Confederate troops in Charleston to take the fort before the Union relief expedition arrived.

5. Most Southerners who backed the Confederate cause did so to

 a. defend the institution of slavery.

 b. protect the southern way of life.

 c. defend the territorial integrity of the Confederacy.

 d. all of the above.

The answer is d. Though only slave owners had a direct economic stake in preserving slavery, most whites in the South embraced the Confederate cause. They emphasized that they were preserving the South’s distinctive culture from northern domination and contended that they were fighting for states’ rights, self-determination, and liberty. Furthermore, Yankee “aggression” had moved from a threat to a pressing reality.

6. To most white Northerners, southern secession

 a. was an attack on a valid, democratically elected government.

 b. constituted a legitimate if extreme way of challenging governmental decisions.

 c. echoed America’s declaration of independence from Britain in 1776.

 d. was a hasty but understandable response to provocation.

The answer is a. Northerners felt that by seceding, Southerners were making an unconscionable attack on the authority of a valid government. They felt that the South’s refusal to accept the outcome of a legitimate, democratic election and its attack on government property were challenges to the rule of law, the authority of the Constitution, and the whole idea of Republican self-rule.

7. When the Civil War broke out in 1861,

 a. the South had many more resources than the North.

 b. the North had many more resources than the South.

 c. both the North and the South had about the same number of resources.

 d. the North had superior economic resources, while the South had the advantage in manpower.

The answer is b. The North had enormous advantages by most measures. The North had more than twice the population of the South and many more miles of railroads. It produced 90 percent of the nation’s industrial goods, including 13 times as much textiles as the South, 16 times as much iron, and 32 times as many firearms.

8. Southerners expected that Britain and perhaps France would ally with the Confederacy to avoid having their

 a. sailors impressed.

 b. supply of cotton interrupted.

 c. source of tobacco cut off.

 d. bank loans defaulted on.

The answer is b. Britain was especially dependent on southern cotton. More than 700 million pounds of the 900 million pounds of cotton that Britain imported annually came from the South. Southerners believed that if that supply were interrupted, Britain would become a Confederate ally out of economic necessity.

9. The significance of the battle of Bull Run was

 a. the incredibly high number of casualties that both sides suffered.

 b. its strategic importance.

 c. the subsequent decision of European nations to intervene in the war.

 d. the lessons both sides drew from it.

The answer is d. Bull Run seemed to Southerners to confirm the superiority of their army and the inevitability of their eventual triumph. For Northerners, it indicated that the war was going to be longer and more difficult than they had expected; within four days of the loss, Lincoln signed bills authorizing the enlistment of one million men for three years.

10. General George McClellan’s weakness as commander of the Army of the Potomac was that he was

 a. from a nonmilitary background.

 b. a poor military trainer.

 c. unpopular with his troops.

 d. indecisive and slow to act.

The answer is d. McClellan, second in his class at West Point, was an energetic administrator who was able to whip the Army of the Potomac into shape after the disaster at Manassas; however, he lacked decisiveness. Lincoln wanted a general who would take risks. McClellan, he complained, suffered from “the slows.”

11. In September 1862, Robert E. Lee pushed the fighting across the Potomac into Maryland because

 a. Maryland possessed crucial resources.

 b. McClellan had chased him out of Virginia.

 c. he believed a Confederate victory on northern soil might end the war.

 d. Jefferson Davis had commanded him to do so.

The answer is c. Lee believed that a victory on northern soil would convince Maryland to leave the Union and perhaps force Lincoln to sue for peace. But a Union soldier found a copy of Lee’s orders to his army, giving McClellan a major advantage in the fighting. However, McClellan was too cautious to fully exploit that knowledge to destroy Lee’s army.

12. By the end of 1862, the military struggle in the East had

 a. demonstrated that McClellan was right to avoid battles.

 b. reached a stalemate.

 c. proved the overwhelming superiority of the Army of Northern Virginia.

 d. proved the overwhelming superiority of the Army of the Potomac.

The answer is b. Despite its victory at Antietam, by the end of 1862 the Union had not succeeded in achieving any of its goals in the eastern theater: It had failed to take Richmond, defeat Lee, or decisively end the rebellion.

13. As the Civil War dragged on, President Lincoln decided that emancipation was necessary because

 a. Democratic politicians demanded it.

 b. white Northerners were in favor of it.

 c. slaves were the underpinning of the Confederate war machine.

 d. it would undermine Confederate morale.

The answer is c. The Confederates used slaves to perform essential war work, including building fortifications, hauling materiel, tending to horses, and doing camp chores. Slaves also worked in ironworks and shipyards and as agricultural laborers, making supplies and growing food for Confederate soldiers and civilians. Thus, it gradually became obvious that to defeat the Confederacy, the North would have to destroy slavery.

14. Throughout 1861, abolitionists pressed President Lincoln to emancipate southern slaves, arguing that

 a. the freed slaves would be a valuable addition to the fighting forces of the North.

 b. in seceding, Southerners had forfeited their right to constitutional protection.

 c. emancipation would solidify white northerners’ support for the war.

 d. the Republicans could survive without Democratic support.

The answer is b. Abolitionists insisted that when the southern states seceded, they gave up their right to the protection of the Constitution. As traitors, their property—including their human possessions—could legally be confiscated. Yet Lincoln was concerned that any hint that he was considering emancipation would cause slaveholders in the loyal border states to defect to the South.

15. In March 1862, Congress established a national policy on fugitive slaves that

 a. made runaways the property of border state slave owners.

 b. returned runaways to their masters.

 c. declared all runaways free.

 d. forbade the return of runaways to their masters.

The answer is d. At first, Union commanders sent fugitive slaves back to their owners, but some officers accepted the runaways and put them to work. General Benjamin F. Butler devised a new status for these fugitives, calling them “contraband of war,” or confiscated property. Congress made the policy official in March 1862 by forbidding the practice of returning fugitive slaves to their masters. Slaves still were not legally free, but there was a slight tilt in favor of emancipation.

16. To make emancipation more acceptable to white Northerners, President Lincoln initially

 a. tried to educate the northern public about racial prejudice.

 b. offered to deport African Americans out of the country.

 c. hoped to confine it to slaves in those areas of the Confederacy that were occupied by Union troops.

 d. wanted to settle freed slaves in the western territories.

The answer is b. Most white Northerners were afraid of freed slaves moving north into white neighborhoods and competing for white jobs. To calm these racial fears, Lincoln tried to promote colonization programs that would send freed blacks out of the country to Haiti, Panama, or other destinations. Blacks, however, resisted colonization, and the program was never funded properly.

17. The easiest task Jefferson Davis and the Confederate government faced was

 a. working with the states to decide the disposition of money, supplies, and soldiers.

 b. building the armed forces of the Confederacy.

 c. financing the war.

 d. creating an industrial sector to supply war material.

The answer is b. The Confederate army and navy had to be built from scratch. However, hundreds of officers had resigned from the federal army out of loyalty to the South. Also, there were hundreds of thousands of volunteers to fill the rebel ranks. Thus, the Confederacy soon had assembled considerable military manpower.

18. The Union blockade of the Confederate states made it necessary for the Confederate government to

 a. build its own industrial sector.

 b. support a fleet of blockade runners.

 c. socialize private industries.

 d. smuggle in manufactured goods from the North.

The answer is a. As the Union naval blockade grew more effective, it became increasingly necessary for the Confederate government to develop an independent source for manufactured goods. Thus, the government funded clothing and shoe factories, mines, arsenals, and powder works in addition to harnessing private companies to the war effort.

19. Ultimately, the Confederate government’s bold measures

 a. failed to transform the South’s agricultural economy into an industrial one.

 b. successfully transformed the South’s agricultural economy into an industrial one.

 c. allowed the South’s production to keep pace with that of the North.

 d. backfired and actually reduced the South’s industrial production.

The answer is a. The Confederacy did manage to manufacture more than most people thought possible. Still, it never produced as much as the South needed, and the gap between northern and southern production continually widened.

20. Confederate states responded to Richmond’s policy of impressment with

 a. unfailing support.

 b. quiet resignation.

 c. objections that it usurped states’ rights.

 d. suggestions that taxation would be a better tool for financing the war.

The answer is c. The need to supply the Confederacy with goods and personnel to engage in war forced the government in Richmond to intrude on the lives of Confederate citizens. The Confederacy adopted a policy of impressment, which allowed the government to confiscate slaves, food, horses, and other goods. Individuals objected to Jefferson Davis’s “despotism” while leaders of Confederate state governments decried Richmond’s usurpation of states’ rights.

21. During the Civil War, Republicans were able to

 a. prevent the federal government from interfering in the economy.

 b. enact their platform of federal programs to encourage economic growth.

 c. pass very little of the legislation they supported.

 d. pass laws to undermine the Democratic Party.

The answer is b. When 11 slave states seceded, the Democrats’ strength in Congress was halved. As a result, there was very little opposition to Republican programs, and Congress was easily able to pass the Legal Tender Act, the National Banking Act, the Internal Revenue Act, the Homestead Act, the Pacific Railroad Act, a higher tariff, and a series of sweeping tax laws.

22. Legislation passed by the Republicans during the Civil War

 a. helped the northern war effort.

 b. had no lasting effect on the nation.

 c. both of the above.

 d. neither of the above.

The answer is a. The initiatives that Republicans passed during the war revolutionized the country’s banking, monetary, and tax structures and bolstered the North’s war effort. Moreover, Congress created the Department of Agriculture and passed a Land-Grant College Act that set aside public land to support universities emphasizing “agriculture and mechanical arts.” These initiatives had long-term consequences for agriculture and industry and permanently changed the nation.

23. When northern farmers took up arms in the Civil War, their domestic tasks were taken over by

 a. runaway slaves.

 b. women.

 c. paid agricultural laborers.

 d. government employees.

The answer is b. With more than a million farm men serving in the military, farm women added men’s chores to those they were already doing. Rising agricultural production indicated that they were successful at plowing, planting, and harvesting.

24. During the Civil War, Congress aimed to integrate the West more thoroughly into the nation by

 a. approving the Homestead Act.

 b. passing the Pacific Railroad Act.

 c. subsidizing the Pony Express.

 d. all of the above.

The answer is d. During the war, the Republican-dominated Congress passed various legislation to better integrate the West into the Union including the Homestead Act, which offered 160 acres of land to settlers; the Pacific Railroad Act, which provided massive federal assistance for building a transcontinental railroad that ran from Omaha to San Francisco; and subsidizing the Pony Express mail service to deliver U.S. mail in the West.

25. General Ulysses S. Grant took the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi, by means of

 a. a direct assault.

 b. a complicated naval operation.

 c. delicate negotiations.

 d. a lengthy siege.

The answer is d. In 1863, the city of Vicksburg was the only thing keeping the Union from controlling the entire Mississippi River. Vicksburg was extremely well defended, however; impenetrable terrain made it impossible to take the city from the north, and it was fortified with cannons aimed down at the river. Grant tried to attack the city directly but ended up settling in for a long siege, eventually starving the city’s inhabitants into surrendering.

26. In 1863, General Lee decided to attack the Union army at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, after

 a. the Confederacy’s embarrassing loss at Vicksburg.

 b. becoming emboldened by his stunning victory at the battle of Chancellorsville.

 c. Southerners questioned his ability to defeat Union forces.

 d. the Union took control of the Mississippi River.

The answer is b. Lee had won a stunning victory over the Union forces at Chancellorsville, Virginia, and felt confident that he could mount an aggressive assault on the North and undermine its morale.

27. After General Grant became the general in chief of the Union armies in March 1864, he made two important decisions—to send the western armies into

 a. Georgia and to take on Lee directly.

 b. South Carolina and to avoid fighting Lee.

 c. Georgia and to avoid fighting Lee.

 d. South Carolina and to take on Lee directly.

The answer is a. As the commander of all the Union armies, Grant was able to implement his strategy for a war of attrition. He ordered a series of simultaneous assaults throughout the South; his most significant decisions, however, involved sending the western armies southeast toward Atlanta under the command of General William T. Sherman, and taking personal control of the Army of the Potomac to go head-to-head with Lee in Virginia.

28. Despite suffering heavy losses in his 1864 Virginia campaign, General Grant did not believe that he was defeated because he

 a. had easily taken the important railroad junction of Petersburg, Virginia.

 b. knew that the Confederates lost even more soldiers than did the Union.

 c. had captured Richmond, the Confederate capital, by June of that year.

 d. knew that the Confederates had lost proportionally as many men.

The answer is d. Grant lost twice as many soldiers as the Confederates in four weeks of heavy fighting in Virginia. However, Lee had only half the number of troops that Grant had and so had lost proportionally as many men. Grant was well aware that the South could not replace its lost soldiers.

Chapter 12 -15: Visual Activities

Chapter 12: Visual Activity 1

Westward the Star of Empire Takes Its Way—near Council Bluffs, Iowa

This painting by Andrew Melrose depicts the mid-nineteenth-century landscape of agricultural and technological progress. [Photo credit] Museum of the American West, Autry National Center, 92.147.1.

Reading the Image: How does the artist use light to suggest the environment of progress? How are trees depicted in this painting? 

Connections: What messages about nature and progress does the artist suggest? How does the title of the painting contribute to your understanding of these messages? 

The following activity will enhance your visual analysis skills and deepen your knowledge of this period.

Visual Activity 2
Pioneer Family on the Trail West
In 1860, W. G. Chamberlain photographed these unidentified travelers momentarily at rest by the upper Arkansas River in Colorado. Traveling in family groups created additional challenges for Americans moving west. [Photo credit] Denver Public Library, Western History Division #F3226.

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Reading the Image: Based on this photograph, what were some of the difficulties faced by pioneers traveling west? 
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Connections: How did wagon trains change the western United States? 

Chapter 13: Visual Activity 1

The Henry Frank, New Orleans

The steamboat Henry Frank sits dangerously overloaded with cotton bales at the New Orleans levee in 1854. The magnitude of the cotton trade in the South’s largest city and major port is difficult to capture. Six years earlier, a visitor, Solon Robinson, had expressed awe: “It must be seen to be believed; and even then, it will require an active mind to comprehend acres of cotton bales standing upon the levee, while miles of drays [carts] are constantly taking it off to the cotton presses. . . . Boats are constantly arriving, so piled up with cotton, that the lower tier of bales on deck are in the water.” Amid the mountains of cotton, few Southerners doubted that cotton was king. [Photo credit] Historic New Orleans Collection.

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Reading the Image: How does the image of the Henry Frank demonstrate the centrality of cotton to southern agriculture and southern people? 
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Connections: Where did most of the cotton on the Henry Frank likely come from? 

Visual Activity 2

The Price of Blood
This 1868 painting by T. S. Noble depicts a transaction between a slave trader and a rich planter. The trader nervously pretends to study the contract, while the planter waits impatiently for the completion of the sale. The planter’s mulatto son, who is being sold, looks away. The children of white men and slave women were property and could be sold by the father/master. [Photo credit]Morris Museum of Art, Augusta, Ga.

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Reading the Image: Who is absent from the painting and what does this suggest about the tragedy of miscegenation? 
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Connections: The white, male planter represented the pinnacle of southern society. How did white women, black men, and black women fit into this strict hierarchy? 

Chapter 14: Visual Activity 1

The Modern Medea
In 1855, a slave family—Robert Garner; his twenty-two-year-old wife, Margaret; their four children; and his parents—fled Kentucky. Margaret’s owner tracked them to a cabin in Ohio. Thinking that her children would be returned to slavery, Margaret seized a butcher knife and cut the throat of her two-year-old daughter. She was turning on her other children when slave catchers burst in and captured her. Abolitionists claimed the act revealed the horror of slavery; defenders of slavery argued that the deed provide that slaves were savages. This 1867 painting shows Margaret standing over the bodies of two boys. Artist Thomas Satterwhite Noble departed from history in order to allude to the Greek myth of Medea, who killed her two children to spite her husband. [Photo credit] Harper’s Weekly, May 18, 1867/Picture Research Consultants & Archives.

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Reading the Image: What does the painting suggest about the white men’s response to Margaret Garner’s actions? About Garner’s relationship with her children? 
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Connections: How might Northern white women have interpreted this image? 

Visual Activity 2
John Brown Going to His Hanging, by Horace Pippin, 1942
The grandparents of Horace Pippin, a Pennsylvania artist, were slaves. His grandmother witnessed the hanging of John Brown, and this painting recalls the scene she so often described to him. Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. John Lambert Fund. [Photo credit] Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. John Lambert Fund.

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Reading the Image: What was the artist trying to convey about the tone of John Brown’s execution? According to the painting, what were the feelings of those gathered to witness the event? 
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Connections: How did Brown’s trial and execution contribute to the growing split between North and South? 

Chapter 15: Visual Activity 1

Union Ordnance, Yorktown, VirginiaAs the North successfully harnessed its enormous industrial capacity to meet the needs of the war, cannons, mortars, and shells poured out of its factories. A fraction of that abundance is seen here at Yorktown in 1862, ready for transportation to Union troops in the field. [Photo credit] Library of Congress.

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Reading the Image: What does this image indicate about northern military might in the Civil War? 
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Connections: What role did the North’s industrial power play in its victory in the war? 

Visual Activity 2
The Battle of Savage’s Station, by Robert Knox Sneden, 1862
Artist Robert Sneden captured an early Confederate assault in what became known as the Seven Days Battle. Over the next three years, Sneden produced hundreds of vivid drawings and eventually thousands of pages of remembrance, providing one of the most complete accounts of a Union soldier’s Civil War experience. [Photo credit] Lora Robbins Collection of Virginia Art, Virginia Historical Society

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Reading the Image: What can we glean from this watercolor about the realities of the battlefield during the early years of the Civil War? 
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Connections: What can this watercolor tell us about how the Civil War experience differed for the North and the South? 

Chapter 14: The House Divided, 1846–1861

1. When the war with Mexico ended in 1848, Congress had

 a. voted to prohibit slavery in the territories that the United States had gained in the war.

 b. voted to allow slavery in the territories that the United States had gained in the war.

 c. extended the Missouri Compromise line.

 d. not resolved the status of slavery in the territories that the United States had gained in the war.

The answer is d. When the war with Mexico broke out in 1846, national legislators recognized that it would lead to new U.S. territories and proposed a variety of different plans for dealing with the question of slavery in them. However, by the time the war ended two years later, Congress had made no headway in solving the issue, although sectional tensions had been heightened.

2. Some Northerners were opposed to the extension of slavery into the land gained from the war with Mexico because they

 a. felt that it would dishonor Mexican–American War veterans.

 b. feared that the issue would allow Whigs to pick up votes.

 c. worried about slave uprisings occurring out west, where the white population was much smaller.

 d. were hostile to blacks and wanted to reserve new lands for whites.

The answer is d. Coming out against slavery did not necessarily preclude racist sentiments. Some white Northerners wanted to ban the spread of slavery because they were prejudiced against blacks and wanted new western lands to be preserved for white settlement. Other northern voters in the 1840s and 1850s did not want slavery to expand because of their fear of increased southern political power. Northerners realized that new slave territories would eventually become new slave states and increase the power of slaveholding interests in the national government.

3. In the debate over the Wilmot Proviso, Senator John C. Calhoun contended that Congress did not have the authority to ban slavery in the territories because

 a. the Constitution gave that authority to the judicial branch.

 b. the Constitution explicitly forbade Congress to make laws for the territories.

 c. of the conditions laid down by the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

 d. Congress could not deprive any state of equal rights in the territories.

The answer is d. Calhoun argued that the territories constituted the “joint and common property” of the states. Congress did not have the right to deprive any state of equal rights in any territory, including the right of a state’s citizens to migrate with their property, including slaves, to a territory.

4. The most attractive aspect of Senator Lewis Cass’s doctrine of popular sovereignty was that it

 a. relied on a national vote to determine the issue of slavery in the territories.

 b. was ambiguous about the moment at which the fate of slavery would be decided.

 c. gave Congress ultimate decision–making power with regard to the fate of slavery in the territories.

 d. was opposed by southern congressmen.

The answer is b. Because popular sovereignty—by which the settlers in a territory would decide for themselves the fate of slavery—did not establish precisely when the residents of a territory would decide the issue of slavery, both northern and southern politicians were able to sell the plan to their constituents. Northern supporters claimed that the decision on slavery could be made as soon as the first territorial legislature assembled, thus making it possible to ban slavery almost before a single slave could even arrive in the area. Southern supporters claimed that the issue could be determined only when settlers drew up a constitution and applied for statehood, thus giving slavery a chance to become entrenched.

5. The issue that undermined the Compromise of 1850 was

 a. California statehood.

 b. runaway slaves in New England.

 c. the assumption of Texan debts.

 d. the ending of the slave trade in Washington, D.C.

The answer is b. The Compromise of 1850 had included the Fugitive Slave Act, a new and more stringent law for returning fugitive slaves to their owners. Although the measure did not receive much attention when the Compromise was being debated, brutal enforcement of the law brought the horrors of the slave system into the North.

6. In the 1830s, northern states began to provide fugitive slaves with protection from their owners by means of

 a. personal liberty laws.

 b. state–run freemen’s bureaus.

 c. publicly funded transit to Canada.

 d. laws preventing slaveholders from entering free states.

The answer is a. A 1793 federal law that allowed slave owners to enter other states to recapture their slave property offended many Northerners, who saw it as a license to kidnap free blacks. They responded by passing “personal liberty laws” that gave fugitives some protection.

7. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 allowed the seizure of an alleged slave after a slaveholder

 a. had produced at least two witnesses who could identify the runaway as his.

 b. paid a substantial fee to the court.

 c. provided physical evidence of ownership.

 d. appeared before an appointed commissioner and swore the slave was his.

The answer is d. Southerners had been angered by northern resistance to returning fugitive slaves to their owners and insisted that any comprehensive settlement of sectional differences include a stronger fugitive slave law. The measure, passed in 1850 as part of the Compromise, made it quite easy for a slave owner to claim an alleged runaway slave as his property by requiring only that the slaveholder swear to his ownership before a court–appointed commissioner.

8. Northern sentiment against slavery was crystallized in part by the publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin,

 a. which proved to have considerable influence in spite of its very limited sales.

 b. a factual history of the Legree plantation in Louisiana.

 c. a novel about plantation life written by a northern white woman.

 d. a firsthand account of slave life written by a former slave.

The answer is c. Harriet Beecher Stowe, a free white northerner who had never been to a plantation, wrote the best–selling novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, or Life among the Lowly (1852), which sold more than 300,000 copies in its first year. Stowe’s book portrayed kind, courageous slaves who suffered at the hands of fiendish slave owners. Uncle Tom’s Cabin was celebrated in the North as a literary triumph and helped to crystallize northern sentiment against the southern slave system.

9. The most crucial result of the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act was that it

 a. boosted the strength of the Whig Party.

 b. helped the popularity of the Democratic Party in the North.

 c. made Kansas into a slave state.

 d. realigned the nation’s two major political parties.

The answer is d. The Kansas–Nebraska Act had the effect of undermining the old party system, in which the Whigs and the Democrats had organized and channeled political conflict and put a damper on sectionalism. In the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska controversy, the old national parties were replaced by two sectional parties.

10. The new political party system of the 1850s

 a. was defined by the split between easterners and westerners.

 b. muffled moral issues such as slavery.

 c. made political compromise difficult.

 d. encouraged political compromise.

The answer is c. With the rise of what one critic labeled “geographic” parties, ideological and policy differences between the North and the South were sharpened, and moral issues such as slavery were brought to the forefront of political debate. However, this had the disadvantage of thwarting political compromise and promoting political polarization.

11. The Whig Party’s showing in the presidential election of 1852 demonstrated that it

 a. did not need southern support to win elections.

 b. was placating its southern wing at the expense of its northern wing.

 c. needed to find better candidates.

 d. no longer had strong national support.

The answer is d. The disintegration of the Whig Party began during the Mexican–American War; Whig president Zachary Taylor’s support for the entrance of California into the Union as a free state hastened the party’s decline. By 1852, it was evident that the party could not please both its southern and northern wings. In that presidential election, Whig candidate General Winfield Scott carried only four states.

12. In the 1850s, the Democrats remained relatively united by

;a. ejecting antislavery party members.

 b. refusing to discuss the issue of slavery.

 c. supporting popular sovereignty.

 d. championing a free–soil West.

The answer is c. The decline and collapse of the Whig Party left the Democrats as the only national party. To avoid collapsing themselves, the Democrats embraced the doctrine of popular sovereignty, which many Democrats, regardless of region, could support. However, the application of popular sovereignty to the Nebraska Territory divided northern Democrats and undermined the party’s popularity in the free states.

13. In 1855, popular sovereignty in Kansas led

 a. President Franklin Pierce to intercede on behalf of antislavery forces in the state.

 b. to a free–soil electoral victory.

 c. to orderly elections that guaranteed the status of slavery.

 d. to the formation of two rival governments.

The answer is d. Popular sovereignty supposedly rested on orderly elections in which settlers determined the status of slavery in their territory. In Kansas Territory, the elections turned into an opportunity for widespread fraud as both proslavery and antislavery settlers attempted to manipulate the outcome. Proslavery settlers were joined by thousands of Missourians who illegally voted in the early elections and formed a radically proslavery legislature. Outraged free–soil settlers elected their own legislature and enacted a different set of laws.

14. South Carolina representative Preston Brooks’s attack on Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner had the effect of

 a. cooling northern denunciations of slavery.

 b. ruining Sumner’s political career.

 c. ending Brooks’s political career.

 d. giving the Republican Party a symbol of southern villainy.

The answer is d. When Preston Brooks beat Charles Sumner into unconsciousness, he increased his popularity among his constituents, who responded to Brooks’s resignation from the House by reelecting him. However, the attack was interpreted differently in the North, and Republicans used it to symbolize the violent nature of the South’s “civilization.”

15. Dred Scott based his claim to freedom on

 a. the immorality of the slave system.

 b. his travels and residences in free areas.

 c. the fact that he had purchased his freedom.

 d. his master’s intention of freeing him.

The answer is b. Dred Scott, a slave, sued for his freedom in court after his master took him to Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory, both of which were closed to slavery. He argued that living in a free state and then a free territory had made both him and his family free and that they retained that status even after being returned to the slave state of Missouri.

16. In its 1857 decision in the Dred Scott case, the Supreme Court ruled that

 a. blacks were not citizens of the United States.

 b. travel in free territories did not make slaves free.

 c. Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories.

 d. all of the above.

The answer is d. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney loathed Republicans and the idea of racial equality and used the Dred Scott case to reinforce his own prejudices. His ruling reflected an extreme proslavery stance and ranged far beyond the simple issue of whether Dred Scott was free.

17. Before the 1850s, Southerners had used the threat of secession as a ploy to

 a. reinforce southern nationalism.

 b. encourage foreign investment in the South.

 c. destroy the Union.

 d. gain concessions within the Union.

The answer is d. Prior to the 1850s, Southerners talked about secession when they wanted to get political concessions within the existing Union. During the 1850s, however, developments shattered Southerners’ belief that they could remain a part of the United States and still protect slavery; the new circumstances meant that the talk of secession became more and more serious.

18. Most Northerners believed that John Brown’s 1859 raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia, was

 a. undertaken in the name of a bad cause.

 b. a good idea but poorly executed.

 c. a lawless act of unwarranted violence.

 d. a justifiable attack on the slave system.

The answer is c. Some abolitionist Northerners felt that Brown was a hero, and some even endorsed his cause of slave rebellion. Still, the majority argued that, while they supported Brown’s cause, his antislavery ideals did not excuse the violence of his approach. This did not placate Southerners, who increasingly refused to distinguish between moderate and radical Northerners.

19. In 1860, moderate Southern Democrats abandoned the Democratic Party and formed the Constitutional Union Party to support

 a. the Constitution and the Union.

 b. the abolition of slavery.

 c. the extension of popular sovereignty.

 d. a federal slave code for the territories.

The answer is a. After stomping out of the Democratic Party convention in April 1860, southern Democrats reconvened on their own, nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for president, and approved a platform with a federal slave code. Southern moderates refused to support Breckinridge and formed the Constitutional Union Party to provide voters with a Unionist choice. The group approved a vague resolution pledging “to recognize no political principle other than the Constitution. . .the Union. . .and the Enforcement of the Laws.” They nominated former senator John Bell of Tennessee as their presidential candidate.

20. Republican Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election in 1860 because

 a. his votes were concentrated in the free states, which held a majority of electoral votes.

 b. his opposition was splintered.

 c. he promised to end slavery.

 d. New Jersey’s electoral votes were split between Lincoln and Douglas, putting Lincoln over the edge.

The correct answer is a. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln swept all of the eighteen free states except New Jersey, which split its votes between him and Douglas. Lincoln won only 39 percent of the popular vote, but he won in the electoral college with 180 votes. Lincoln won because his votes were concentrated in the free states, which contained a majority of electoral votes.

Chapter 12: The New West and Free North, 1840–1860

1. American productivity increased in the 1840s and 1850s partly because a growing number of Americans worked

 a. on railroads.

 b. for themselves.

 c. for the government.

 d. in factories.

The answer is d. 80 percent of the nation’s population still lived in rural areas in 1860, but around 20 percent of the nation’s workers labored in factories. Factory workers were twice as productive as agricultural workers and made a significant contribution to the nation’s economic growth.

2. The use of steam power in manufacturing in the mid–1800s spread slowly because

 a. human and animal power were still effective and widely used.

 b. most manufacturers were afraid of new technology.

 c. steam–powered machines were dangerous and unreliable.

 d. of a scarcity of coal for use in fueling steam engines.

The answer is a. Steam began to be used as a source of energy in manufacturing in the early 1840s, but the transition was slow because of the continued usefulness of old manufacturing methods. In 1860, people and work animals still provided thirty times more energy for manufacturing than steam.

3. Farmers found that greater agricultural productivity was possible in the Midwest in part because

 a. the region was relatively treeless.

 b. farmers were free of eastern regulations restricting production.

 c. Native Americans advised them on how to adapt their farming techniques to the plains environment.

 d. the region was free from urban pollution.

The answer is a. As farmers pushed out onto the comparatively treeless prairie of the Midwest, they spent less time clearing land and more time planting and cultivating crops, which increased agricultural productivity. They also found richer soils that provided somewhat higher crop yields than eastern farms.

4. In addition to speeding transportation, railroads propelled the growth of the

 a. gasoline industry.

 b. timber and mining industries.

 c. oil industry.

 d. iron and telegraph industries.

The answer is d. In part because of the demand for wheels, axles, locomotives, rails, and heavy iron bridges, iron production grew five times faster than the population in the 1840s and 1850s. And in the decades after Samuel F. B. Morse first demonstrated the telegraph in 1844, more than fifty thousand miles of telegraph wire were strung across the United States, often alongside railroad tracks, greatly facilitating communications of all sorts and making trains safer and more efficient.

5. In the northern and western states, discrimination against women and free blacks in the half century after the American Revolution was

 a. increasingly less common.

 b. not a source of concern for most white men.

 c. widely denounced by many white men as improper and unjust.

 d. not discussed publicly.

The answer is b. Tens of thousands of women were stuck in low–paying jobs as seamstresses, laundresses, servants, factory hands, and teachers, with little hope of obtaining higher–paying jobs. Slavery was largely eliminated in the North and West by the middle of the nineteenth century, but free blacks were mostly relegated to dead–end jobs as laborers and servants. Most white men felt that such discrimination was normal and even just.

6. According to free–labor spokesmen, success was available

 a. to anyone who worked hard.

 b. only to those who had inherited wealth.

 c. only to those who could obtain labor for free.

 d. only to those who were willing to start out working for no wages.

The answer is a. Free–labor spokesmen pointed to examples of self–made men who had done well for themselves despite little education and few social advantages. They claimed that success was the result of hard work, self–reliance, and discipline.

7. The free–labor ideal argued that wage labor was

 a. the first step toward independence.

 b. a dead end.

 c. more suitable for immigrant workers than for native–born white men.

 d. a good career.

The answer is a. Free–labor proponents argued that the system made it possible for hired laborers to become independent property owners. As long as they were diligent and saved their earnings, wageworkers could accumulate enough wealth to go into business for themselves and eventually hire other laborers.

8. In keeping with the free–labor ideal, communities throughout the North and West funded

 a. welfare programs.

 b. cheap loans for small businesses.

 c. saloons for workingmen.

 d. public schools.

The answer is d. The free–labor ideal upheld an egalitarian vision of human potential. Its supporters believed that universal education could make it possible for each person to take advantage of opportunities; in response, communities supported public schools to make basic education available to young children.

9. The phrase manifest destiny referred to Americans’

 a. sense of religious fervor.

 b. support for the Democratic Party.

 c. God–given right to conquer the West.

 d. desire for more immigration.

The answer is c. According to John L. O’Sullivan, the journalist who coined the phrase manifest destiny, Americans had the duty to resist any foreign power that attempted to keep Americans from inhabiting the entire North American continent. O’Sullivan argued that American institutions and culture were so superior to all other forms of civilization as to grant Americans a God–given right to the land.

10. American claims to the Oregon Country, the vast region between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, competed with those of

 a. Great Britain.

 b. Russia.

 c. Spain.

 d. France.

The answer is a. The United States and Great Britain each claimed the Oregon Country as its own. In 1818, the two countries agreed to a “joint occupation” that opened the area to settlement by citizens of both nations. By the 1840s, American expansionist fervor had propelled thousands of emigrants to make the arduous journey to Oregon.

11. The majority of the Plains Indians were

 a. dependent on fish and small game for food.

 b. agricultural peoples.

 c. nomadic and nonagricultural peoples.

 d. evangelical Christians.

The answer is c. Taking advantage of the horses that the Spanish had introduced to North America in the sixteenth century, the Plains tribes became highly mobile buffalo hunters, relying on buffalo for most of their food, clothing, shelter, and fuel.

12. When westward–bound emigrants asked the federal government for more protection against the Plains Indians, it responded by

 a. giving the emigrants weapons.

 b. launching an attack on the Plains Indians at Fort Laramie.

 c. jailing the Plains Indians.

 d. initiating a policy of Indian concentration.

The answer is d. In response to white emigrants’ requests for protection on the Oregon Trail, the federal government called the Plains tribes to a conference at Fort Laramie, Wyoming. There they persuaded the chiefs to sign agreements that cleared a wide corridor for wagon trains by restricting Native Americans to specific areas that whites promised they would never violate. This was all part of the government’s new Indian policy of “concentration.”

13. Future Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner opposed President John Tyler’s plan to annex Texas because

 a. he believed that annexation would be an expensive prospect for the United States.

 b. he was concerned about the expansion of slavery into Texas.

 c. he believed that annexation would most certainly lead to war.

 d. he did not believe in manifest destiny.

The answer is b. When John Tyler proposed to annex Texas in April 1844, Charles Sumner called the plan “insidious” and suggested that Tyler intended to make the new territory into “great slaveholding states.” After such public outcry by Sumner and other Northerners, the Senate, concerned about sectional conflict, rejected the treaty.

14. War with Mexico was made certain by President Polk’s insistence on

 a. annexing Texas.

 b. annexing California.

 c. ignoring Mexican diplomats.

 d. acquiring all of Mexico’s northern provinces.

The answer is d. Polk was not satisfied with the annexation of Texas; he wanted the northern provinces of California and New Mexico as well and was furious when Mexico refused to sell him this land, which today encompasses California, Nevada, Utah, most of New Mexico and Arizona, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado.

15. President Polk helped to spark the war with Mexico by ordering American troops to

 a. Mexico City.

 b. the Rio Grande.

 c. the Nueces River.

 d. Buena Vista.

The answer is b. The United States claimed that Texas stretched south all the way to the Rio Grande; Mexico placed the Texas border 150 miles to the north, at the Nueces River. When American troops advanced to the Rio Grande, they were, in the eyes of Mexicans, invading Mexico.

16. The war with Mexico

 a. divided the nation.

 b. was deeply unpopular in all sections of the country.

 c. was immensely popular in all sections of the country.

 d. ended more quickly than President Polk had anticipated.

The answer is a. Although there was an outpouring of support for the war effort, Northerners were not nearly as enthusiastic about the war as Southerners. Northern Whigs denounced the war in no uncertain terms as the bullying of a weak nation by a greedy and expansionist neighbor.

17. The reform movements of the 1840s and 1850s were based on the common belief that the era’s major social problems resulted from

 a. psychological repression.

 b. insufficient self–control.

 c. economic injustice.

 d. uncontrolled immigration.

The answer is b. The emphasis on self–discipline and individual effort that lay at the core of the free–labor ideal had ramifications for Americans’ understanding of social problems as well. Reformers believed that a lack of self–control lay at the root of most social difficulties, including alcoholism, poverty, and prostitution.

18. The transcendentalists were a group of New England writers who believed that people should

 a. practice Buddhism.

 b. look within themselves for truth and guidance.

 c. embrace evangelical religion.

 d. observe all social norms.

The answer is b. Transcendentalists felt that people should refuse to conform to the materialistic world or to the dogma of formal religion. Instead, each person should, as a solitary individual, set his or her own course by looking within for truth and guidance. Transcendentalism was an exaggerated form of the individualism that was typical of the era.

19. Utopian communities like those of the Fourierists wanted to

 a. become models of perfection.

 b. encourage a healthy amount of competition among community members.

 c. foster industrialization.

 d. foment a working–class rebellion.

The answer is a. Fourierists followed the teachings of Charles Fourier, a French critic of contemporary society. They wanted to encourage an alternative system that removed the evils of individualism and competition. In their communities, which they called phalanxes, Fourierists tried to replace competition with harmonious cooperation based on communal ownership of property, but the phalanxes rarely survived more than a couple of years.

20. The Oneida community was organized to allow members to practice

 a. folk medicine.

 b. intensive meditation.

 c. vegetarianism.

 d. complex marriage.

The answer is d. John Humphrey Noyes, the leader of Oneida, felt that society’s commitment to private property made people selfish and greedy and that the notion of private property derived from men’s conviction that their wives were their exclusive property. Therefore, he proposed a community in which sexual intercourse was allowed between any consenting man and woman, regardless of their marital status.

Chapter 10: A Maturing Republican, 1800–1824

1. The presidential election of 1800 was thrown into the House of Representatives because

 a. John Adams objected to the outcome.

 b. Alexander Hamilton’s meddling threw the outcome into doubt.

 c. Thomas Jefferson and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney got an equal number of votes.

 d. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr got an equal number of votes.

The answer is d. Burr was supposed to be Jefferson’s running mate. However, when he and Jefferson received an equal number of votes in the electoral college, Burr refused to concede the presidency to Jefferson. This meant that the election decision was sent to the House of Representatives, where it took thirty–six ballots to resolve the question of who would be the country’s next president.

2. The 1803 Supreme Court decision in Marbury v. Madison was a landmark case because it

 a. allowed the House of Representatives to determine the constitutionality of laws.

 b. increased the power of the president.

 c. forced President Jefferson to honor President Adams’s appointments.

 d. was the first time the Court acted to disallow a law on the grounds that it was unconstitutional.

The answer is d. In the Marbury v. Madison case, the Supreme Court ruled that, although Jefferson should honor John Adams’s commissions, the Court could not compel him to do so. However, by declaring that the grounds of Marbury’s suit were invalid because they were in conflict with the Constitution, the Court in effect assumed the legal authority to nullify acts of the other branches of the federal government if the Court determined that those acts violated the Constitution.

3. From 1776 to 1801, American ships secured safe passage off the coast of North Africa by

 a. sailing under the British flag.

 b. paying tribute to four Muslim coastal states.

 c. forming a military alliance with Arabic navies.

 d. promising local Arabic leaders that they were not trading in slaves.

The answer is b. Prior to 1776, American ships had sailed under the British flag and enjoyed the protection afforded by British tribute payments to the Barbary States—Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis. Ships from nations that refused to pay the tribute were subject to piracy by the four coastal settlements. To protect American merchants, the U.S. government paid the tribute.

4. In the Chesapeake incident of 1807,

 a. a British ship captured an American privateer that ran aground just off the English coast.

 b. a French ship fired on a British merchant vessel as it emerged from New York City’s harbor.

 c. a British naval vessel fired on an American ship at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay.

 d. an American naval vessel sank a British frigate in an open fight on the high seas.

The answer is c. In June 1807, the Leopard, a frigate in the British navy, stopped the American ship Chesapeake and demanded that a crew be allowed to board the Chesapeake and search for British deserters. After the Chesapeake’s commander refused the search, the Leopard opened fire, killing three Americans. The incident, which happened well within U.S. territory, prompted President Jefferson and Congress to pass the Embargo Act.

5. The social network that brought politicians together and facilitated communication for hiring and promotion during the Madison administration included

 a. twice weekly cabinet meetings held by James Madison at a local tavern.

 b. monthly barbecues held by Republican senators on the lawn of the Capitol building.

 c. presidential press conferences held in the Oval Office on the second Thursday of every month.

 d. weekly parties hosted by Dolley Madison at the presidential residence.

The answer is d. Dolley Madison’s weekly dinners, called “Mrs. Madison’s crush” or “squeeze” because of the high demand to attend, became an important way for those in government to meet in a nonpartisan setting and establish social connections that were vital to the business of running the country. Dolley Madison’s skill at political hospitality earned her the nickname of the “presidentress.”

6. The defeat of the Indians at Tippecanoe in 1811 propelled

 a. Tecumseh into an alliance with British military commanders.

 b. Americans into war with England.

 c. the War Hawks into renewed commitment.

 d. All of the above.

The correct answer is is d. Tecumseh was deeply upset by William Henry Harrison’s successful attack on Prophetstown and the bad faith the American government and settlers were showing. This gave him every reason to ally himself with British military commanders stationed at outposts in southern Canada and contributed to the outbreak of the War of 1812, which was supported by the War Hawks, western and southern congressmen who sought a war with Britain to justify attacks on Indians and to bring an end to British impressment of American sailors.

7. According to the War Hawks’ Report on the Causes and Reasons for War, war with Great Britain was necessary because

 a. the United States needed Canada and Florida.

 b. the rate of impressments was rising.

 c. of the British lust for power and mad ambition that dishonored the United States.

 d. trade between Britain and South America hurt the American economy.

The answer is c. Even though the Report on the Causes and Reasons for War was issued in response to the British seizure of American ships, the impressment of American sailors, and the alliance between the British and Tecumseh, it contained extravagant language about Britain’s “lust for power,” “unbounded tyranny,” and “mad ambition” to demonstrate the ways Great Britain insulted the honor of the United States.

8. Delegates to the Hartford Convention in December 1814 proposed

 a. amending the Constitution to protect New England’s sectional interests.

 b. refusing to pay for the war.

 c. rejecting the Treaty of Ghent.

 d. All of the above.

The answer is a. New Englanders had been unenthusiastic about the war; New England congressmen had largely voted against the initial war declaration. Although they could not prevent the war from breaking out, they resisted it by dragging their feet in raising troops for the national army. The main thrust of the Hartford Convention had to do with proposing constitutional amendments that would reduce the South’s political power and make sure that no sectional party or group could ever again lead the country into war at the expense of another group. Delegates wanted to abolish the three–fifths clause as a basis of representation, make certain important types of legislation subject to a two–thirds congressional vote rather than a simple majority, limit the president to one term, and prohibit successive presidents from the same state.

9. Under the legal doctrine of feme covert, wives had

 a. limited property rights.

 b. no independent legal or political personhood.

 c. full custody of their children.

 d. no right to work for pay.

The answer is b. The doctrine of feme covert maintained that a married woman’s civic life was subsumed by her husband’s. A married woman was obligated to obey her husband and had no legal claim to her property, her earnings, or even their children.

10. When state legislatures codified their laws, they generally

 a. addressed women’s unequal status.

 b. gave women the right to vote in state elections.

 c. passed up the opportunity to change women’s unequal status.

 d. worsened women’s unequal status.

The answer is c. Although states rewrote many British laws in light of republican principles, for the most part they did not alter the laws of domestic relations. American legislators simply assumed that unequal power relations lay at the heart of the family.

11. Around 1800, the church hierarchy of most Protestant denominations was

 a. dominated by women.

 b. almost exclusively male.

 c. elected by church members.

 d. composed of elderly men and women.

The answer is b. By 1800, white women composed the majority of congregants. However, nearly all ordained ministers and church elders were male, which meant that most denominations were governed by men.

12. Quaker women who felt a special call were

 a. often forced out of their congregation.

 b. ignored.

 c. quietly tolerated.

 d. accorded the status of ministers.

The answer is d. Quakers had a long history of recognizing that women’s spiritual talents could equal those of men. Although Quaker governance was sex segregated, with separate men’s and women’s committees hearing disciplinary cases and formulating church policy, Quaker women were able to lead and speak in religious meetings.

13. Missouri’s admission to statehood was complicated because

 a. of the ten thousand slaves in the territory.

 b. it lacked the minimum number of residents.

 c. southerners opposed its entrance to the Union.

 d. most Missourians wanted to remain independent.

The answer is a. Missouri lined up geographically with the free states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. However, it also bordered the southern slave states of Kentucky and Tennessee. As southern white planters had migrated to Missouri, they brought their human property with them, and thus about a sixth of the territory’s population was enslaved. Northerners did not want to see a slave state so far to the north, but southerners could not let the balance of power tip toward the free states.

14. James, amendments to the Missouri statehood bill in 1819 caused controversy because they proposed

 a. gradually emancipating all American slaves.

 b. gradually emancipating all slaves in Missouri.

 c. ending the sale of slaves between states.

 d. ending the sale of slaves in the United States.

The answer is b. Tallmadge proposed two amendments to the Missouri statehood bill: the first stipulated that slaves born in Missouri after the enactment of the law be freed at the age of twenty–five, while the second declared that no new slaves could be imported into the state. Tallmadge modeled the first amendment on New York’s gradual emancipation law of 1799.

15. The 1824 election was the first presidential contest in which candidates’ popularity with ordinary voters could be measured, because in all but six of the twenty–four states

 a. voters voted for the president directly.

 b. voters chose the members of the electoral college.

 c. voters voted for the state senators who chose the electoral college members.

 d. public opinion polls were widely used.

The answer is b. Prior to 1824, state legislatures chose electors for the electoral college. However, by 1824 all but six states had changed their state constitutions to allow voters the privilege of choosing the electoral college. Because potential electors campaigned by supporting particular candidates, the composition of the electoral college in 1824 reflected popular opinion, at least among the quarter of eligible voters who bothered to exercise the franchise.

16. John Quincy Adams’s victory in the 1824 election was characterized as a “corrupt bargain” on account of

 a. Adams’s appointment of Henry Clay as secretary of state.

 b. Adams’s shameless pandering to the House of Representatives.

 c. the liberal use of bribes and payments.

 d. Adams’s widespread use of patronage positions to secure support.

The answer is a. After Henry Clay dropped out of the election, he convinced his supporters in the House to vote in favor of Adams rather than Andrew Jackson. Although Clay and Adams loathed each other, they had political concerns in common, particularly their interest in federal support for internal improvements. But when Adams appointed Clay secretary of state three days after the election, Jackson’s supporters protested that a backroom deal had been made, robbing their candidate of his rightful victory.